Week 2: Theories & Models of Learning & Instruction

1.  Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

 

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief” and, in a broad sense, the “issues having to do with the creation and dissemination of knowledge in a particular area of study.”  In contrast, instructional theories as defined by Charles M. Reigeluth, in his book Instructional-design theories and models: An new paradigm of instructional theory, Volume II involve theories which “offer explicit guidance on how to help people learn and develop their cognitive, emotional, social, physical, and spiritual learning outcomes.”  To my understanding, the distinction between the two terms is that epistemology is the study or investigation of “how” we acquire knowledge whereas instructional methods or theories are the “means” by which we acquire that knowledge.

 

Epistemology:

 

In his article What is Epistemology?  Philosophy of Truth, Knowledge, and Belief, Austin Cline discusses at great length the two major schools of thought when it comes to how we acquire knowledge, those being rationalism and empiricism.  Rationalism states that knowledge is acquired through reason and that it is possible to know something without experiencing it personally, this is known as “priori knowledge,” priori meaning “before.”  Empiricism on the other hand suggests that knowledge is gained through one’s life experiences, that we can only know something after being subjected to a relevant experience; this is known as “posteriori knowledge” where posteriori means “after.”

  

Instructional Theories:

 

In chapter six of our text, Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology, Reiser and Dempsey have identified several popular learning theories including Behavioral Learning Theory, Cognitive Information Processing Theory, Schema Theory and Cognitive Load, Situated Learning Theory, Gagne’s Theory of Instruction, Connectivism, and my personal favorite Constructivism.

 

Behavioral Learning Theory, first proposed by American psychologist B.F. Skinner, proposes that all behavior is caused by external stimuli, or operant conditioning, and that “learning can be understood, explained, and predicted entirely on the basis of observable events.”  This theory is empirically based meaning that “behavior is observed both before and after an intervention (instruction) has been implemented.”  Instruction is broken down into “small steps” allowing for frequent learner responses and instructor feedback which is viewed as reinforcement, either positive or negative.  Although effective, these types of lessons are very often seen as “boring” by the attending students.   

 

The Cognitive Information Processing Theory, like behavioral theory, also focuses on the important role that the environment plays in learning. A stimulus from the environment enters through the sensory register via sight, sound, touch, or smell and passes through to our short term or working memory.  With rehearsal, this information can move to and become stored in our long term memory.  Instructors assist learners in the processing of information by “directing their attention” and by also providing “practice in a variety of context” to help insure that the learner makes “personally meaningful connections between the new information and their prior knowledge.” 

 

Schema Theory and Cognitive Load

 

Schema Theory suggests that all knowledge is organized into units or “packets of information” called schemas.  These schemas help us to organize information into “systematic and predictable categories” which help us to make sense of new experiences and the world around us.  The “fit” of this new information into our existing schemata affects how we interpret experiences while any information that does not “fit” into our preexisting schemata are open to misinterpretation.

 

Cognitive Load equates to the amount of cognitive processing including selecting, organizing, and integrating which the working memory can or cannot handle without overloading.  The three forms of cognitive load mentioned on page 261 of our text include Extraneous processing i.e. overly complex visuals with extraneous material which takes away from the focus of the learning experience, Essential processing i.e. presenting complex information which involves the “simultaneous manipulation of multiple elements of memory,” and finally Generative processing i.e. motivating the learner to organize and integrate information to understand content meaning.  The cognitive load theory suggests that learners be “gradually introduced to a series of tasks” on a continuum from simple to complex, in order to reduce cognitive load and increase learning.

 

Situated Learning Theory is an instructional approach which suggests that students are more likely to learn course material if they are actively participating in the learning experience rather than being lectured and “taught at.”  Its strength is the integration of “knowing” with “doing” where one learns a subject by doing what experts in the field of study do.  The book provides us with an example of this concept in which the “community-of-learners” known as CSILE or Computer-Supported- Intentional Learning Environment, links experts in the field with students in the classroom to share in “mutually constituted knowledge building efforts” leading to the facilitation of a “high-level collective cognitive responsibility and dynamic knowledge building among members of the learning community.”

 

Gagne’s Theory of Instruction focuses on intellectual skills, identifying five major categories of learning, each requiring their own kind of instruction, which include: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes.  He proposed an “integrated and comprehensive theory of instruction” with a learning hierarchy which defines not only the sequence of instruction but also what intellectual skills are to be learned.    

 

Below is a listing of the nine instructional events as learning conditions and their corresponding cognitive processes which Gagne saw as supporting the learner’s “internal processes of attention, encoding, and retrieval.”

1.      Gaining attention (reception)

      2.      Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
      3.      Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
      4.      Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
      5.      Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
      6.      Eliciting performance (responding)
      7.      Providing feedback (reinforcement)
      8.      Assessing performance (retrieval)
      9.      Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)


Connectivism is a learning theory which focuses on emerging Internet technologies and the “formation of connections within its network” which allow individuals to share content across the entire planet through email, wikis, blogs, vlogs, tweets, discussion forums, and social networks like Facebook, Flickr, Goodreads, Instagram, and Linkedin.  This learning process is cyclical as new material is continually being added to the network forming a connected community of learners around their “shared” information.  MOOC’s or Massive Open Online Courses take advantage of these Web 2.0 technologies to facilitate learning on a grand scale, one in which the learners themselves determine the content to be studied, who can participate, and also the method they will use to communicate.

 

Constructivism is where I found my niche.  Here, within this theory, learning is viewed as an “Active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.”  In this model, the learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, all while relying on a cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) to do so.  The student’s cognitive structure provides the meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given."  I believe this process encourages them to move up Bloom’s Taxonomy from simply memorizing information to name, select, locate, and identify items (Remembering) to being able to compare, differentiate, critique, assess, plan, and combine information in the production of an original, unique product.  This not only requires the student’s thorough understanding of the subject matter but also taps into their originality and creativity (Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating). 

  

2.  Chapters in this section discuss three contrasting epistemic stances: positivist, relativist, and contextualist (or hermeneutical). Positivists believe that the only truth or knowledge is objective truth. Relativists don’t believe that objective truth is possible and that all knowledge is subjective to perception or relative to a particular frame of reference. Contextualists believe that truth or knowledge is relative to context rather than individual, subjective understanding. While designers and educators with a positivist stance generally apply behaviorist principles to the design and development of instruction, those with either a contextualist or relativist epistemological framework employ constructivist theories and methods. Reflect on whether your stance is primarily positivist, relativist, or contextualist. Then, identify an instance when your perspective or stance as a learner conflicted with that of your instructor. Describe the conflict that you experienced and analyze whether opposing epistemic stances may have been at the heart of the conflict.

 

Given these three epistemic stances, I would have to classify myself as a contextualist.  The importance of context in determining the meaning is imperative, the situations we find ourselves in helps us to define our truth.  I see a contextualist as a level-headed person of reason who is willing to take into account the varying factors, looking at the big picture if you will, before forming any conclusions or passing judgment.  Circumstances play a major role in helping us to fashion our own reality.

 

I remember an instance in which my students had scored lower than expected on a district generated unit evaluation and the instructional support teacher was on the war path.  She was demanding an explanation while I, having not been allowed to preview the test before hand, simply asked to have a copy of the test to look over before responding.  The following day, after looking over and taking the test, I met with her and my principal and demonstrated that four of the 25 answers from the districts answer key were incorrect and that several of the remaining problems were so badly worded that I had struggled to come up with the correct answer.  The IST was a devout positivist who believed that the test was the absolute measure of my student’s performance and above reproach.  I on the other hand reserved comment on the situation until I had all the facts and avoided her rush to judgment.  

 

3.  Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

 

Behaviorist are interested in measurable, behavioral responses related to external stimuli instead of what “might” or “might not” be going on inside a person’s mind, with very little or no interest in trying to understand how the human brain functions.  Instead they rely heavily on statistical analysis of experimental results in establishing the effectiveness of their instructional design.  In applying this approach, instruction is broken down into small, manageable steps, students are given ample time and opportunities to practice their new skills; and those who respond correctly are rewarded for their efforts.  As mentioned in my earlier response, although effective, this learning strategy can become static, repetitive, and overall boring for the student which can and often does lead to discipline problems within the classroom.    

 

Constructivist on the other hand are committed to trying to establish an understanding of how a person’s reasoning and thinking skills develop over time as they mature.  Constructivist believe that learners develop knowledge by actively participating in their own learning instead of being “taught at” in a “sit-and-get,” teacher-centered, lecture formatted instructional model.  Learning is viewed as a social process which is achieved through the interaction and collaboration of students and instructor.  By actively engaging the students, they are more likely to become motivated, energized, and genuinely interested in the course work and are at a far less likely risk of finding the information boring, tired, or tedious.  Behavior management problems also oftentimes decrease as a direct result of this type of instructional model, or at least, that has been my personal experience within the classroom.      

  

References:

Cline, Austin (n.d). What is Epistemology?  Philosophy of Truth, Knowledge, and Belief. Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-epistemology-250526

 

Dempsey, J.V., & Reiser, R. A. (2012). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.    

 

Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An new paradigm of instructional theory, Volume II.. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

 

Staff, Teach Thought. (2013, April 7). 14 Bloom’s Taxonomy Posters for Teachers.  Retrieved June 12, 2017, from http://www.teachthought.com/critical-thinking/blooms-taxonomy/14-brilliant-blooms-taxonomy-posters-for-teachers/

 

Steup, Matthias, "Epistemology", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/epistemology